The Argumentative Continuum
By Dean Jester and Shona Rose
“Everything's an argument,” (Lunsford, Rusziewics, and Waters, 2018). My friend Cheryl says that
even poetry is an argument. What’s important here is that folks understand the continuum of argument.
Each mode uses different structures, embodies different characteristics, and is motivated by some very
different reasons.
The continuum goes like this: informational, argument, persuasion, and propaganda. Opinion is an outlier.
I don’t know where to put it.
Opinion:
Opinion writing where an opinion is established and the pros and cons are explored in contrast or in a
neutral treatment to provide information about each side. In some ways, opinion writing does not haveto have any kind of factual evidence or research. It’s just what someone thinks and why. I’m thinking of
editorials. People are just reacting to things and explaining why and how. Sometimes, opinion writing couldmeet the criteria for argument. For Texas, we need to be writing evidence based claims based on sources. Opinion just seems too…un-nuanced. Yeah, that’s not a word.
Informational:
I’ll assign a persona to this mode: a Nerd. This kid is a dinosaur nerd. He knows all kinds of things about
them - what they ate, where they lived, what they look like, how to say their Latin names, the period they
lived in, the places on earth where they were found. All kinds of knowledge. All told with wonder, power,
and beauty. And it’s enlightening to learn from the wealth of information and categories from this dude.
Especially when he’s 6. The point is that he loves dinosaurs and wants to tell you all about them.
Argumentative:
Let’s consider argumentative writing. This mode of writing is represented by the teacher.
They have the same body of knowledge as the nerds. (Some of us are nerds.) But they are motivated by
sharing truth. They organize the knowledge into sequences that help the audience see a line of thinking.
They support the ideas with all kinds of evidence, reasoning, rhetoric, and literary devices. They try to help
the audience think through all sides of an issue. The teacher “argues” in a way that helps the audience
make decisions for themselves about truth.
Argumentative writers seek to defend a claim with credible evidence and reasoning. Writers of argument
are careful to explore and present facts as opposed to offering opinions...as this often leads to logical
fallacies. The TEKS Guide states that an argumentative text is “a text written to demonstrate to an
audience that a certain position or idea is valid and others are not. The writer appeals to reason, develops,
defends, or debates the topic, connecting a series of statements in an orderly way so they lead to a logical
conclusion.
Persuasive:
Persuasive and Argumentative texts are NOT the same thing. Persuasive texts seek to convince a reader
to think, believe, or do something, often ending in a call to action. (Consider FDR’s D’Day Speech where
he asked congress to declare war.) Think car salesmen and politicians. Think of commercials. They aren’t
going to tell you the dark underbelly of the product’s qualities. Only the good stuff, Maynard.
What they tell you is specifically chosen or omitted depending on what they want or need you to do.
They want the sale. They want the vote.
Propaganda:
Think dictators. Think 1984. They twist, omit, change, and flat out lie. And they do it to gain power and control. The techniques and structures of propaganda are divisive, evil, and very different from those used in any other mode.
So What are We Supposed to Teach?
Where do we find it?
Consider the characteristics and structures of argumentative text as posed by the TEKS. You aren’t going
to find what you need in one strand.
In K-2, learners recognize characteristics of persuasive texts. No guidance is in the standards to explain what
those characteristics are other than “2.9(i.) stating what the author is trying to persuade the reader to think
or do, and ii distinguishing fact from opinion.” Notice that we do NOT find the characteristics and structures
in the COMPOSITION strand. We learn about the characteristics and structures in the MULTIPLE GENRES
and the AUTHOR’S PURPOSE AND CRAFT strands.
This is because the COMPOSITION strand states that beginning in grades 3-5, students will “compose
argumentative texts including opinion essays, using genre characteristics and craft."The terms genre characteristic and craft signal educators to look in Multiple Genres strands to find the
genre characteristics for argument and in the Author’s Purpose and Craft strand to find argumentative craft.
In grades 6-12, students are to “(C) compose multi-paragraph argumentative tests using genre characteristics and craft.” Again, we have to look in the Multiple Genres and Author’s Purpose and Craft strands to know what those
are.
Notice also the connection to opinion in grades 6-8 when students “(D) compose correspondence that reflects an opinion, registers a complaint, or requests information in a business or friendly structure.”
But What about Persuasive?
So what are the characteristics, structures, and craft for opinion writing and argument? Notice that the
standards do not ask students to compose persuasive texts…ever. The testing blueprints don’t either.
K-3: Students learn that persuasive texts are to be read in order to find out what the author wants them to think, believe, or do. Because this can be dangerous or misleading, we teach kids to read against the text, noting when statements are factual and when they are just what other people think about something: opinions. Now, of course, you can explain why and how you have opinions that can go in a graphic organizer. But the reader must always be aware that opinions are beliefs that can be used to manipulate your thinking, choices, and actions. The teaching point isn’t about the definitions and identification of facts and opinions. The teaching point is how to be aware of the IMPACT and USE of facts versus opinions.
What Do We Teach about Argument in Each Grade?
3rd Grade: Students begin to learn about argumentative texts. Specifically, they learn how to identify the author’s claim about a topic. What does the author believe about the topic? Students continue to practice discernment between opinions offered by the writer as opposed to relevant and valid facts. Going deeper, they begin to learn that the way the writer uses facts depends on who the audience is and how the facts are connected to the claim in a way the reader can follow.
4th Grade: At this grade, students continue with their work in identifying the author’s claim about a topic. They continue to analyze facts, how they connect to the claim, and how they provide evidence and reasoning the audience can track. In addition, students begin to look at facts - evidence gleaned from texts - that support the claim. Students cull facts that are FOR the claim.
5th Grade: By this grade, students have had multiple experiences in examining how evidence from texts support a claim. Now they are ready for something more nuanced. They are ready to select textual evidence that could be used AGAINST a claim in an argument. Students cull facts from a text that prove a claim to be incorrect.
6th Grade: In previous grades, students have been reading texts to select factual evidence to support or
use against a claim. There are more kinds of evidence than facts. The TEKS now say “various types of
evidence to support the argument.” The TEKS do not delineate types of evidence, but here’s a few off the
top of my mind: text structures (like compare/contrast), expert testimony, personal anecdotes, analogies,
figurative language, hypothetical scenarios, interviews, research, reports from site visits, surveys, graphic
elements…The best technique would be to gather some argumentative texts and see how writers pose
various types of evidence.
The TEKS guide helps as well with this language: “Depending on the topic and audience, authors select
evidence, or specific and compelling facts and details to prove the validity of their arguments. Because
argumentative writing seeks to prove that the author’s positions are reasonable and sound, writers consider
what facts and approaches will make the best impression on the reader as they plan their pieces. Students
should be able to make connections between the points bedding made and the information presented to
support their validity. Students should have enough awareness of various kinds of support such as historical
precedent, anecdotal evidence, scientific studies, and other approaches, to know which are being used in
an argument and how they serve to clarify or strengthen the ideas.
In 6th grade, students move from identification of argument to analysis of the characteristics and structures.
This means that when students are consuming argumentative texts, they are analyzing why the techniques and structures are used in texts they read and in texts they write. The TEKS guide
illuminatesanother element of importance when students are composing their arguments: “Students should also
understand that argumentative texts tend to be structured (organized) based on the structure of the claim.
For instance, if the claim is that one course of action might be better than another, an
advantage/disadvantage structure would likely be used.” In other words, students learn to pick the best
organizational structure for the specific claim they want to make. (This is also why RACE may not be
sufficient for all claims or prompts. But I’ve moaned and complained about that before.)
It’s also important to look at the Author’s Purpose and Craft strand. While all of the standards apply to
argumentative writing, the author’s use of language and devices in 6.9G are critical. Students are to
explain
the differences between rhetorical devices and logical fallacies. Rhetoric and logic are critical to
comprehending argumentative writing and to compose argument well.
7th Grade: All the previous grade level skills apply and add “consideration of alternatives to support the argument.”
This confused me a bit because of “alternatives” juxtaposed with “support.” They seem opposite to me.
Again, TEKS Guide helped: “consideration of alternatives to support the argument: Students should be
aware of how authors can strengthen their own arguments by recognizing and addressing counterpoints
in order to demonstrate why those points are not as valid or convincing as the one the author is trying to
make. When the author can demonstrate a logical deconstruction of the opposing views, the reader has an
easier time trusting that the stance of the author is valid.” A stance is the perspective the author uses to
state the claim, their position. This is the perfect chance to examine other perspectives on the claim and
explain why they are not effective. Sometimes, people will use a technique called straw man. They set up a
weak opposing argument, explain its flaws, and then share their claim and support. Concession is another
type. Writers agree that the other side has a good point that they will agree with. Then the writer explains
why their argument (claim and support) is still a better alternative.
As in grade 6, 7.9 (G)- students, as readers and as writers, must understand and use “purpose of rhetorical
devices such as direct address and rhetorical questions and logical fallacies such as loaded language and
sweeping generalizations.” Note that we would want students to use rhetorical devices and we would not
want students to use logical fallacies. And what 7th grader do you know that doesn’t use loaded language and
sweeping generalizations to get their way. Definitely needs to be taught.
8th Grade: The TEKS now explicitly use the term counter argument. Sentence stems like, “While some would say that
x, y is a better solution.” or “While it is true that a, b is more compelling.”
As 8th graders, they also learn how to analyze the argument itself - how the claim, structures, audience,
and support are carefully crafted or designed.
In grade 8, the focus on Author’s Purpose and Craft in 8.9 (G) introduces logic and rhetoric associated with argument: “explain the purpose of rhetorical devices such as analogy and juxtaposition and of logical fallacies such as bandwagon appeals and circular reasoning.”
Again, we’d want to see analogy and juxtaposition. We’d NOT want to see bandwagon or circular reasoning
in argumentative writing.
English I-IV: At these grades, readers examine the previous skills but now add a nuanced understanding
to their claims: the claim must be both clear and arguable. That’s definitely a movement away from opinion.
English I and II students learn to make appeals. The TEKS guide has information about appeals, but alas,
it has yet to be released. Google will have to suffice. Be careful though, some appeals can be used as
manipulation more akin to propaganda or persuasion.
Greater focus is also placed on a “convincing conclusion” as well. By consuming a lot of argumentative texts
, students and teachers can begin a collection of convincing and satisfying conclusions.
In addition, students learn to make concessions (hinted at in previous grades, but now overtly named.) They also learn structures for making a rebuttal. Common ways to organize a rebuttal are pointing out the ways the counterargument is wrong or flawed or agreeing with the counterargument and then adding a new point, condition, or issue that would make their argument unreliable. Some people will use the same support as the counterargument and then twist the facts to support their argument. Not recommended. English III and IV students also emphasize analysis of the structure of the argument. The TEKS here also reference a more persuasive mode for closing the argument, returning to call to action. Not all arguments have a call to action, so that baffles me.
In terms of Author’s Purpose and Craft, English I, 9 (G) explores further use of language: “explain the purpose of rhetorical devices such as understatement and overstatement and the effect of logical fallacies such as straw man and red herring arguments.” Note: Some straw man arguments are pretty mild, but are used in argumentative writing structures. Straw man is a fallacy - and to be avoided - when the opposing position is distorted beyond what it really is and then arguing as if that exaggerated version was the truth. Notice that the analysis of rhetoric and logic has changed - students are now to explain the effect of fallacies on the reader and their acceptance of the claim.
In English II, we move from explanations of rhetoric and logic to analysis: “analyze the purpose of rhetorical devices such as appeals, antithesis, parallelism, and shits and the effects of logical fallacies. In English III and IV, students analyze how all of that impacts how the text is read and understood.
A Closing Argument
Based on what I have written here, I hope that several points are clear.
We learn about the differences between fact and opinion so we can make good decisions about what
people say and write.
Opinion isn’t always argumentative in mode. Persuasion is not argument. Each mode uses different
Writers pick the organizational structure that fits what they need to say. Writers are going to need more
It is critical for decision making in comprehension and composing that we understand when we are
We teach claim, argument, evidence, logical reasoning, logical fallacies, rhetorical tools, text structures,
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